The War of Independence of Brazil (also known as the Brazilian War of Independence) was waged between the newly independent Brazilian Empire and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, which had just undergone the Liberal Revolution of 1820.[1] It lasted from February 1822, when the first skirmishes took place, to March 1824, with the surrender of the Portuguese garrison in Montevideo. The war was fought on land and sea and involved both regular forces and civilian militia. Land and naval battles took place in the territories of Bahia, Cisplatina and Rio de Janeiro provinces, the vice-kingdom of Grão-Pará, and in Maranhão and Pernambuco, which today are part of Ceará, Piauí and Rio Grande do Norte states.
The population of Colonial Brazil at the turn of the 19th century was 3.4 million. 60% of them were free men, mostly of Portuguese descent. At that time slaves were not counted as free people.
It is difficult to say how many Reinóis (those born in Portugal) lived in Brazil in 1822, since all inhabitants were subjects of Portugal. The majority of the population lived near the Atlantic ocean, mainly in the provinces of Pernambuco, Bahia and Minas Gerais. These three regions dominated economic and political life of the colony. The Pernambuco region thrived by producing sugar, a crop of great value at the time. The southern Bahia region produced sugar, cotton, tobacco and molasses. It was the most densely populated and richest region. Further south was Rio de Janeiro, which controlled the gold and diamond production of Minas Gerais.
The Portuguese army in Brazil consisted of professional troops and militiamen. All officers were appointed by the Court of Lisbon. In 1817, a Republican revolt broke out in Pernambuco. As a result, 2,000 soldiers of "Auxiliary Division" were sent to Brazil. With the arrival of the troops, native officers in Brazil were not given many responsibilities.
At the start of the war, there were about 10,000 Portuguese soldiers and units of the royal cavalry along the Atlantic coast. About 3,000 soldiers were later besieged in Montevideo. A similar number of soldiers occupied Salvador and the rest of the troops were scattered throughout Brazil.
During late 1821 and early 1822, the inhabitants of Brazil took sides in the political upheavals that took place in Rio de Janeiro and Lisbon. Fights between Portuguese soldiers and local militias broke out in the streets of the main cities in 1822[3] and quickly spread inland, despite the arrival of reinforcements from Portugal.
There was a split in the Luso-Brazilian Army which was garrisoned in the Cisplatina province (modern-day Uruguay). Portuguese regiments retreated to Montevideo and were surrounded by Brazilians, led by Baron of Laguna (himself a Portuguese, but, as many other aristocrats, on the side of Brazilian independence).
Remote and sparsely populated northern provinces of Pará and Maranhão declared loyalty to Portugal. Pernambuco was in favor of independence, but in Bahia there was no consensus among the population.
While Portuguese forces were able to stop the local militias in certain cities, including Salvador, Montevideo and São Luís, they failed to defeat the militias in most of the other cities and proved ineffective against the guerrilla forces in the rural areas of the country.
Supporters of Brazilian Independence created and enlarged the Brazilian Army and the Brazilian Navy by forced enlistment of citizens, foreign immigrants and mercenaries. They enlisted Brazilian slaves into militias and also freed slaves in order to enlist them in the army and the navy.
By 1823, the Brazilian Army had grown, replacing its early losses in terms of both personnel and supplies. The remaining Portuguese forces, already on the defensive, were rapidly running out of both manpower and supplies. Outnumbered across a vast territory, the Portuguese were forced to restrict their sphere of action to the provincial capitals along the shore that represented the country's strategic sea ports, including Belém, Montevideo, Salvador and São Luís do Maranhão.
Naval action
Both parties (Portuguese and Brazilian) saw the Portuguese warships spread across the country (mostly in poor condition) as the instrument through which military victory could be achieved. In early 1822, the Portuguese navy controlled a ship of the line, two frigates, four corvettes, two brigs, and four warships of other categories in Brazilian waters.
Warships available immediately for the new Brazilian navy were numerous, but in disrepair. The hulls of several ships that were brought by the Royal Family and the Court to be abandoned in Brazil were rotten and therefore of little value. The Brazilian agent in London, Marquis of Batley (Philibert Marshal Brant) received orders to acquire warships fully equipped and manned on credit. No vendor, however, was willing to take the risks. Finally, there was an initial public offering, and the new Emperor personally signed for 350 of them, inspiring others to do the same. Thus, the new government was successful in raising funds to purchase a fleet.
Arranging crews was another problem. A significant number of former officers and Portuguese sailors volunteered to serve the new nation, and swore loyalty to it. Their loyalty, however, was under suspicion. For this reason, British officers and men were recruited to fill out the ranks and end the dependence on the Portuguese.
The Brazilian Navy was led by British officer Thomas Cochrane. The newly renovated navy experienced a number of early setbacks due to sabotage by Portuguese-born men in the naval crews. But by 1823 the navy had been reformed and the Portuguese members were replaced by native Brazilians, freed slaves, pardoned prisoners as well as more experienced British and American mercenaries. The navy succeeded in clearing the coast of the Portuguese presence and isolating the remaining Portuguese land troops. By the end of 1823, the Brazilian naval forces had pursued the remaining Portuguese ships across the Atlantic nearly as far as the shores of Portugal.
Source: Wikipedia
A motorcycle, often called a motorbike, bike, or cycle, is a
two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a
range of different purposes: long distance travel, commuting, cruising, sport
including racing, and off-road riding. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and
related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club and attending
motorcycle rallies.
The 1885 Daimler Reitwagen made by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach in Germany was the first internal combustion, petroleum fueled
motorcycle. In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series
production motorcycle.
In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally
by volume were Honda (28%), Yamaha (17%) (both from Japan), and Hero MotoCorp
(India). In developing countries, motorcycles are considered utilitarian due to
lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58%
are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding
car-centric Japan.
According to the US Department of Transportation the
number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for
motorcycles than for cars.
Types
The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending
on jurisdiction
There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road,
and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles
for different purposes. There is often a racing counterpart to each type, such
as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes.
Street bikes
include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types.
Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing
classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose
machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features
to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.
Each configuration
offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates
a different riding posture.
In some countries the use of pillions (rear
seats) is restricted.
Experimentation and invention
Replica of the
Daimler-Maybach Reitwagen.
The first internal combustion, petroleum fueled
motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German
inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, Germany in
1885. This vehicle was unlike either the safety bicycles or the boneshaker
bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of steering axis angle and no
fork offset, and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle
dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier. Instead, it relied on two outrigger
wheels to remain upright while turning
The inventors called their invention
the Reitwagen ("riding car"). It was designed as an expedient testbed for their
new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle.
Butler's Patent
Velocycle
The first commercial design for a self-propelled cycle was a
three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle, conceived of Edward Butler in
England in 1884.[10] He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle
Show in London in 1884. The vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine
company in Greenwich, in 1888.
The Butler Petrol Cycle was a three-wheeled
vehicle, with the rear wheel directly driven by a 5⁄8 hp (0.47 kW), 40 cc (2.4
cu in) displacement, 2 1⁄4 in × 5 in (57 mm × 127 mm) bore × stroke, flat twin
four-stroke engine (with magneto ignition replaced by coil and battery) equipped
with rotary valves and a float-fed carburettor (five years before Maybach) and
Ackermann steering, all of which were state of the art at the time. Starting was
by compressed air. The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the rear
driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a throttle valve lever. No
braking system was fitted; the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the
rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever; the weight of the machine was
then borne by two small castor wheels. The driver was seated between the front
wheels. It wasn't, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient
financial backing.
Many authorities have excluded steam powered, electric
motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a
'motorcycle', and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle.
Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide defining only
internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles' is increasingly
problematic.
If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a
motorcycle, then the first motorcycles built seem to be the French
Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filled in
December 1868, constructed around the same time as the American Roper steam
velocipede, built by Sylvester H. Roper Roxbury, Massachusetts.[8][9] who
demonstrated his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. in 1867 Roper
built about 10 steam cars and cycles from the 1860s until his death in 1896.
Postwar
By 1920, Harley-Davidson was the largest
manufacturer, with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67
countries
Amongst many British motorcycle manufacturers, Chater-Lea with its
twin-cylinder models followed by its large singles in the 1920s stood out.
Initially, using converted a Woodmann-designed ohv Blackburne engine it became
the first 350 cc to exceed 100 mph (160 km/h), recording 100.81 mph (162.24
km/h) over the flying kilometre during April 1924.[7] Later, Chater-Lea set a
world record for the flying kilometre for 350 cc and 500 cc motorcycles at 102.9
mph (165.6 km/h) for the firm. Chater-Lea produced variants of these
world-beating sports models and became popular among racers at the Isle of Man
TT. Today, the firm is probably best remembered for its long term contract to
manufacture and supply AA Patrol motorcycles and sidecars.
By the late 1920s
or early 1930s, DKW in Germany took over as the largest manufacturer.
NSU
Sportmax streamlined motorcycle, 250 cc class winner of the 1955 Grand Prix
season
In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the
development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the
possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and Moto Guzzi were in
the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead
of their time.[31] NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths
of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development
and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing.
Moto Guzzi produced competitive race
machines, and until the end of 1957 had a succession of victories.[33] The
following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM
in the light of the safety concerns.
From the 1960s through the 1990s, small
two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of East German
MZs Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s.
Today
Royal Enfield
Bullet
In the 21st century, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by
the Indian motorcycle industry and by Japanese motorcycle companies. In addition
to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity
(less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African
countries and produced in China and India. A Japanese example is the 1958 Honda
Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with
its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008. Today, this area is dominated by
mostly Indian companies with Hero MotoCorp emerging as the world's largest
manufacturer of two wheelers. Its Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million
to date.[36] Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors.
Motorcycle rider
postures
BMW C1, with a more upright seating position
Bombardier Can-Am
Spyder, showing location of rider on the trike
The motorcyclist's riding
position depends on rider body-geometry (anthropometry) combined with the
geometry of the motorcycle itself. These factors create a set of three basic
postures
Sport – the rider leans forward into the wind and the weight of the
upper torso is supported by the rider's core at low speed and air pressure at
high speed The footpegs are below the rider or to the rear. The reduced frontal
area cuts wind resistance and allows higher speeds. At low-speed in this
position the rider's arms may bear some of the weight of the rider's torso,
which can be problematic.
Standard – the rider sits upright or leans forward
slightly. The feet are below the rider. These are motorcycles that are not
specialised to one task, so they do not excel in any particular area. The
standard posture is used with touring and commuting as well as dirt and
dual-sport bikes, and may offer advantages for beginners
Cruiser – the rider
sits at a lower seat height with the upper torso upright or leaning slightly
rearward. Legs are extended forwards, sometimes out of reach of the regular
controls on cruiser pegs. The low seat height can be a consideration for new or
short riders. Handlebars tend to be high and wide. The emphasis is on comfort
while compromising cornering ability because of low ground clearance and the
greater likelihood of scraping foot pegs, floor boards, or other parts if turns
are taken at the speeds other motorcycles can more readily accomplish
Factors
of a motorcycle's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include
the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Factors in a
rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm,
thigh and leg length, and overall rider height.
Source: Wikipedia